Oral Oncology
Volume 40, Issue 7 , Pages 656-667 , August 2004

Staging of the neck in patients with head and neck squamous cell cancer: Imaging techniques and biomarkers

Received 6 November 2003 ,Accepted 10 November 2003.

References 

  1. Werning JW, Heard D, Pagano C, Khuder S. Elective management of the clinically negative neck by otolaryngologists in patients with oral tongue cancer. Arch. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. 2003;129(1):83–88
  2. Weiss MH, Harrison LB, Isaacs RS. Use of decision analysis in planning and management strategy for the stage N0 neck. Arch. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. 1994;120:699–702
  3. Baatenburg de Jong RJ, Knegt P, Verwoerd CD. Reduction of the number of neck treatments in patients with head and neck cancer. Cancer. 1993;71:2312–2318
  4. Schuller DE, Reiches NA, Hamaker RC, Lingeman RE, Weisberger EC, Suen JY, et al.  Analysis of disability resulting from treatment including radical neck dissection or modified neck dissection. Head Neck Surg. 1983;6:551–558
  5. Remmler D, Byers R, Scheetz J, Shell B, White G, Zimmermann S, et al.  A prospective study of shoulder disability resulting from radical and modified neck dissections. Head Neck Surg. 1986;8:280–286
  6. Patten C, Hillel AD. The 11th nerve syndrome: accessory nerve palsy or adhesive capsulitis?. Arch. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. 1993;119:215–220
  7. Sobol S, Jensen C, Sawyer W, Costiloe P, Thong N. Objective comparison of physical dysfunction after neck dissection. Am. J. Surg. 1985;150:503–509
  8. Kuntz AL, Weymuller EA. Impact of neck dissection on quality of life. Laryngoscope. 1999;109:1334–1338
  9. El Ghani F, van den Brekel MW, De Goede CJ, Kuik J, Leemans CR, Smeele LE. Shoulder function and patient well-being after various types of neck dissections. Clin. Otolaryngol. 2002;27(5):403–408
  10. Finn S, Toner M, Timon C. The node-negative neck: accuracy of clinical intraoperative lymph node assessment for metastatic disease in head and neck cancer. Laryngoscope. 2002;112(4):630–633
  11. Nieuwenhuis EJ, Castelijns JA, Pijpers R, van den Brekel MW, Brakenhoff RH, van dW I, et al.  Wait-and-see policy for the N0 neck in early-stage oral and oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma using ultrasonography-guided cytology: is there a role for identification of the sentinel node?. Head Neck. 2002;24(3):282–289
  12. Khafif RA, Gelbfish GA, Tepper P, Attie JN. Elective radical neck dissection in epidermoid cancer of the head and neck. A retrospective analysis of 853 cases of mouth, pharynx, and larynx cancer. Cancer. 1991;67:67–71
  13. Gallo O, Boddi V, Bottai GV, Parrella F, Storchi OF. Treatment of the clinically negative neck in laryngeal cancer patients. Head Neck. 1996;18(6):566–572
  14. McGuirt WF, Johnson JT, Myers EN, Rothfield R, Wagner R. Floor of mouth carcinoma. The management of the clinically negative neck. Arch. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. 1995;121(3):278–282
  15. Hughes CJ, Gallo O, Spiro RH, Shah JP. Management of occult neck metastases in oral cavity squamous carcinoma. Am. J. Surg. 1993;166:380–383
  16. Lydiatt DD, Robbins KT, Byers RM, Wolf PF. Treatment of stage I and II oral tongue cancer. Head Neck. 1993;15:308–312
  17. Persky MS, Lagmay VM. Treatment of the clinically negative neck in oral squamous cell carcinoma. Laryngoscope. 1999;109:1160–1164
  18. Yuen APW, Wei WI, Wong SHW. Critical appraisal of watchful waiting policy in the management of N0 neck of advanced laryngeal carcinoma. Arch. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. 1996;122:742–745
  19. Vandenbrouck C, Sancho-Garnier H, Chassangne D, Saravane D, Cachin Y, Micheau C. Elective versus therapeutic radical neck dissection in epidermoid carcinoma of the oral cavity. Cancer. 1980;46:386–390
  20. Fakih AR, Rao RS, Borges AM, Patel AR. Elective versus therapeutic neck dissection in early carcinoma of the oral tongue. Am. J. Surg. 1989;158:309–313
  21. Kligerman J, Lima RA, Soares JR, Prado L, Dias FL, Freitas EQ, et al.  Supraomohyoid neck dissection in the treatment of T1/T2 squamous cell carcinoma of oral cavity. Am. J. Surg. 1994;168:391–394
  22. Baatenburg de Jong RJ, Rongen RJ, Laméris JS, Harthoorn M, Verwoerd CDA, Knegt P. Metastatic neck disease: palpation vs ultrasound examination. Arch. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. 1989;115:689–690
  23. Feinmesser R, Freeman JL, Noyek AM, Birt BM. Metastatic neck disease. Arch. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. 1987;113:1307–1310
  24. van den Brekel MW, Castelijns JA, Croll GA, Stel HV, Valk J, van der Waal I, et al.  Magnetic resonance imaging vs palpation of cervical lymph node metastasis. Arch. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. 1991;117:663–673
  25. Knappe M, Louw M, Gregor RT. Ultrasonography-guided fine-needle aspiration for the assessment of cervical metastases. Arch. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. 2000;126(9):1091–1096
  26. Friedman M, Shelton VK, Mafee M, Bellity P, Grybauskas V, Skolnik E. Metastatic neck disease. Evaluation by computed tomography. Arch. Otolaryngol. 1984;110:443–447
  27. Stevens MH, Harnsberger HR, Mancuso AA, Davis RK, Johnson LP, Parkin JL. Computed tomography of cervical lymph nodes. Arch. Otolaryngol. 1985;111:735–739
  28. Hillsamer PJ, Schuller DE, McGhee RB, Chakeres D, Young DC. Improving diagnostic accuracy of cervical metastases with computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging. Arch. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. 1990;116:1297–1301
  29. van den Brekel MW, Castelijns JA, Stel HV, Golding RP, Meyer CJ, Snow GB. Modern imaging techniques and ultrasound-guided aspiration cytology for the assessment of neck node metastases: a prospective comparative study. Eur. Arch. Otorhinolaryngol. 1993;250:11–17
  30. Close LG, Merkel M, Vuitch MF, Reisch J, Schaefer SD. Computed Tomographic evaluation of regional lymph node involvement in cancer of the oral cavity and oropharynx. Head Neck. 1989;11:309–317
  31. Moreau P, Goffart Y, Collignon J. Computed tomography of metastatic cervical lymph nodes. A clinical, computed tomographic, pathologic correlative study. Arch. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. 1990;116:1190–1193
  32. Stern WB, Silver CE, Zeifer BA, Persky MS, Heller KS. Computed tomography of the clinically negative neck [see comments]. Head Neck. 1990;12:109–113
  33. Yucel T, Saatci I, Sennaroglu L, Cekirge S, Aydingoz U, Kaya S. MR imaging in squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck with no palpable lymph nodes. Acta Radiol. 1997;38(5):810–814
  34. Baatenburg de Jong RJ, Rongen RJ, de Jong PC, Lameris JS, Knegt P. Screening for lymph nodes in the neck with ultrasound. Clin. Otolaryngol. 1988;13:5–9
  35. Baatenburg de Jong RJ, Rongen RJ, Verwoerd CD, van Overhagen H, Lameris JS, Knegt P. Ultrasound-guided fine-needle aspiration biopsy of neck nodes. Arch. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. 1991;117:402–404
  36. Schwarz R, Chan NH, MacFarlane JK. Fine needle aspiration cytology in the evaluation of head and neck masses. Am. J. Surg. 1990;159:482–485
  37. Feldman PS, Kaplan MJ, Johns ME, Cantrell RW. Fine needle aspiration in squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck. Arch. Otolaryngol. 1983;109:735–742
  38. Frable MA, Frable WJ. Fine needle aspiration revisited. Laryngoscope. 1982;92:1414–1418
  39. van den Brekel MW, Castelijns JA, Stel HV, Luth WJ, Valk J, van der Waal I, et al.  Occult metastatic neck disease: detection with US and US-guided fine-needle aspiration cytology. Radiology. 1991;180:457–461
  40. Takes RP, Righi P, Meeuwis CA, Manni JJ, Knegt P, Marres HAM. The value of ultrasound with ultrasound-guided fine-needle aspiration biopsy compared to computed tomography in the detection of regional metastases in the clinically negative neck. Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys. 1998;40(5):1027–1032
  41. Righi PD, Kopecky KK, Caldemeyer KS, Ball VA, Weisberger EC, Radpour S. Comparison of ultrasound-fine needle aspiration and computed tomography in patients undergoing elective neck dissection. Head Neck. 1997;19(7):604–610
  42. Nieuwenhuis EJ, Jaspars LH, Castelijns JA, Bakker B, Wishaupt RG, Denkers F, et al.  Quantitative molecular detection of minimal residual head and neck cancer in lymph node aspirates. Clin. Cancer Res. 2003;9(2):755–761
  43. Fischbein NJ, Noworolski SM, Henry RG, Kaplan MJ, Dillon WP, Nelson SJ. Assessment of metastatic cervical adenopathy using dynamic contrast-enhanced MR imaging. AJNR Am. J. Neuroradiol. 2003;24(3):301–311
  44. Mack MG, Balzer JO, Straub R, Eichler K, Vogl TJ. Superparamagnetic iron oxide-enhanced MR imaging of head and neck lymph nodes. Radiology. 2002;222(1):239–244
  45. van Dongen GA, Leverstein H, Roos JC, Quak JJ, van den Brekel MW, van Lingen A, et al.  Radioimmunoscintigraphy of head and neck cancer using 99mTc-labeled monoclonal antibody E48 F(ab)2. Cancer Res. 1992;52:2569–2574
  46. de Bree R, Roos JC, Quak JJ, den Hollander W, van den Brekel MW, van der Wal JE, et al.  Clinical imaging of head and neck cancer with technetium-99m-labeled monoclonal antibody E48 IgG or F(ab)2. J. Nucl. Med. 1994;35:775–783
  47. Braams JW, Pruim J, Nikkels PG, Roodenburg JL, Vaalburg W, Vermey A. Nodal spread of squamous cell carcinoma of the oral cavity detected with PET-tyrosine, MRI and CT. J. Nucl. Med. 1996;37(6):897–901
  48. Stuckensen T, Kovacs AF, Adams S, Baum RP. Staging of the neck in patients with oral cavity squamous cell carcinomas: a prospective comparison of PET, ultrasound, CT and MRI. J. Craniomaxillofac Surg. 2000;28(6):319–324
  49. Pitman KT, Ferlito A, Devaney KO, Shaha AR, Rinaldo A. Sentinel lymph node biopsy in head and neck cancer. Oral Oncol. 2003;39(4):343–349
  50. Don DM, Anzai Y, Lufkin RB, Fu Y-S, Calcaterra TC. Evaluation of cervical lymph node metastases in squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck. Laryngoscope. 1995;105:669–674
  51. Buckley JG, MacLennan K. Cervical node metastases in laryngeal and hypopharyngeal cancer: a prospective analysis of prevalence and distribution
  52. Takes RP, Baatenburg de Jong RJ, Schuuring E, Hermans J, Vis AA, Litvinov SV, et al.  Markers for assessment of nodal metastasis in laryngeal carcinoma. Arch. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. 1997;123:412–419
  53. Byers RM, el-Naggar AK, Lee Y-Y, Rao B, Fornage B, Terry NHA, et al.  Can we detect or predict the presence of occult nodal metastases in patients with squamous carcinoma of the oral tongue?. Head Neck. 1998;20:138–144
  54. Liotta LA. Cancer cell invasion and metastasis. Sci. Am. 1992;266:54–59 62–3
  55. Schuuring E. The involvement of the chromosome 11q13 region in human malignancies: cyclin D1 and EMS1 are two new candidate oncogenes. Gene. 1995;59:83–96
  56. Jares P, Fernández PL, Campo E, Nadal A, Bosch F, Aiza G, et al.  PRAD-1/cyclin D1 gene amplification correlates with messenger RNA overexpression and tumor progression in human laryngeal carcinomas. Cancer Res. 1994;54:4813–4817
  57. Parise O, Janot F, Guerry R, Fortin A, Luboinski B, Tursz T, et al.  Chromosome 11q13 gene amplifications in head and neck squamous cell carcinomas: relation with lymph node invasion. Int. J. Oncol. 1994;309–313
  58. Fracchiolla NS, Pruneri G, Pignataro L, Carboni N, Capaccio P, Boletini A, et al.  Molecular and immunohistochemical analysis of the bcl-1/cyclin D1 gene in laryngeal squamous cell carcinomas: correlation of protein expression with lymph node metastases and advanced clinical stage. Cancer. 1997;79(6):1114–1121
  59. Alavi S, Namazie A, Calcaterra TC, Wang MB, Srivatsan ES. Clinical application of fluorescence in situ hybridization for chromosome 11q13 analysis in head and neck cancer. Laryngoscope. 1999;109:874–879
  60. Rodrigo JP, Gonzalez MV, Lazo PS, Ramos S, Coto E, Alvarez I, et al.  Genetic alterations in squamous cell carcinomas of the hypopharynx with correlations to clinicopathological features. Oral Oncol. 2002;38(4):357–363
  61. Michalides RJAM, van Veelen NMJ, Kristel PMP, Hart AAM, Loftus BM, Hilgers FJM, et al.  Overexpression of cyclin D1 indicates a poor prognosis in squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck. Arch. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. 1997;123:497–502
  62. Gaffey MJ, Iezzoni JC, Meredith SD, Boyd JC, Stoler MH, Weiss LM, et al.  Cyclin D1 (PRAD1, CCND1) and glutathione-S-transferase pi gene expression in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma. Hum. Pathol. 1995;26:1221–1226
  63. Bartkova J, Lukas J, Muller H, Strauss M, Gusterson B, Bartek J. Abnormal patterns of D-type cyclin expression and G1 regulation in human head and neck cancer. Cancer Res. 1995;55:949–956
  64. Patel AM, Incognito LS, Schechter GL, Wasilenko WJ, Somers KD. Amplification and expression of EMS-1 (cortactin) in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma cell lines. Oncogene. 1996;12(1):31–35
  65. Masuda M, Hirakawa N, Nakashima T, Kuratomi Y, Komiyama S. Cyclin D1 overexpression in primary hypopharyngeal carcinomas. Cancer. 1996;78(3):390–395
  66. Capaccio P, Pruneri G, Carboni N, Pagliari AV, Quatela M, Cesana BM, et al.  Cyclin D1 expression is predictive of occult metastases in head and neck cancer patients with clinically negative cervical lymph nodes. Head Neck––J. Sci. Special. Head Neck. 2000;22(3):234–240
  67. Wen QW, Nishimura TM, Nagayama I, Furukuwa M. Expression of EGF, EGFR and PCNA in laryngeal lesions. J. Laryngol. Otol. 1995;109:630–636
  68. Irish JC, Bernstein A. Oncogenes in head and neck cancer. Laryngoscope. 1993;103:42–52
  69. Christensen ME, Therkildsen MH, Hansen BL, Albeck H, Hansen GN, Bretlau P. Epidermal growth factor receptor expression on oral mucosa dysplastic epithelia and squamous cell carcinomas. Eur. Arch. Otorhinolaryngol. 1992;249:243–247
  70. Kusukawa J, Harada H, Shima I, Sasaguri Y, Kameyama T, Morimatsu M. The significance of epidermal growth factor receptor and matrix metalloproteinase-3 in squamous cell carcinoma of the oral cavity. Eur. J. Cancer; Part B, Oral Oncol. 1994;(4):217–221
  71. Ishitoya J, Toriyama M, Oguchi N, Kitamura K, Ohshima M, Asano K, et al.  Gene amplification and overexpression of EGF receptor in squamous cell carcinomas of the head and neck. Br. J. Cancer. 1989;59:559–562
  72. Maurizi M, Scambia G, Benedetti Panici P, Ferrandina G, Almadori G, Paludetti G, et al.  EGF receptor expression in primary laryngeal cancer: correlation with clinico-pathological features and prognostic significance. Int. J. Cancer. 1992;52:862–866
  73. Partridge M, Gullick WJ, Langdon JD, Sherriff M. Expression of epidermal growth factor receptor on oral squamous cell carcinoma. Br. J. Oral Maxillofac Surg. 1988;26:381–389
  74. Field JK, Spandidos DA, Malliri A, Gosney JR, Yiagnisis M, Stell PM. Elevated P53 expression correlates with a history of heavy smoking in squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck. Br. J. Cancer. 1991;64:573–577
  75. Shin DM, Lee JS, Lippman SM, Lee JJ, Tu ZN, Choi G, et al.  p53 expressions: predicting recurrence and second primary tumors in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 1996;88:519–529
  76. Lavieille JP, Lubin R, Soussi T, Reyt E, Brambilla C, Riva C. Analysis of p53 antibody response in patients with squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck. Anticancer Res. 1996;16:2385–2388
  77. Ahomadegbe JC, Barrois M, Fogel S, Le Bihan ML, Douc-Rasy S, Duvillard P, et al.  High incidence of p53 alterations (mutation, deletion, overexpression) in head and neck primary tumors and metastases; absence of correlation with clinical outcome. Frequent protein overexpression in normal epithelium and in early non-invasive lesions. Oncogene. 1995;10:1217–1227
  78. Raybaud-Diogene H, Fortin A, Morency R, Roy J, Monteil RA, Tetu B. Markers of radioresistance in squamous cell carcinomas of the head and neck: a clinicopathologic and immunohistochemical study. J. Clin. Oncol. 1997;15:1030–1038
  79. Brennan JA, Mao L, Hruban RH, Boyle JO, Eby YJ, Koch WM, et al.  Molecular assessment of histopathological staging in squamous-cell carcinoma of the head and neck. N. Engl. J. Med. 1995;332:429–435
  80. Raybaud-Diogene H, Tetu B, Morency R, Fortin A, Monteil RA. p53 overexpression in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma: review of the literature. Eur. J. Cancer B Oral Oncol. 1996;32B(3):143–149
  81. Pruneri G, Pignataro L, Carboni N, Ronchetti D, Cesana BM, Ottaviani A, et al.  Clinical relevance of p53 and bcl-2 protein over-expression in laryngeal squamous-cell carcinoma. Int. J. Cancer. 1998;79(3):263–268
  82. Liu M, Lawson G, Delos M, Jamart J, Chatelain B, Remacle M, et al.  Prognostic value of cell proliferation markers, tumour suppressor proteins and cell adhesion molecules in primary squamous cell carcinoma of the larynx and hypopharynx. Eur. Arch. Otorhinolaryngol. 2003;260(1):28–34
  83. Van Heerden WF, Dreyer L, Swart TJ, Van Heerden MB, Boy SC. The suitability of paraffin-embedded material to predict metastatic potential of oral squamous cell carcinoma. Anticancer Res. 2002;22(6C):4147–4150
  84. Ma L, Ronai A, Riede UN, Kohler G. Clinical implication of screening p53 gene mutations in head and neck squamous cell carcinomas. J. Cancer Res. Clin. Oncol. 1998;124(7):389–396
  85. Mineta H, Borg A, Dictor M, Wahlberg P, Akervall J, Wennerberg J. p53 mutation, but not overexpression, correlates with survival in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma. Br. J. Cancer. 1998;78(8):1084–1090
  86. Birchmeier W, Weidner KM, Hulsken J, Behrens J. Molecular mechanisms leading to cell junction (cadherin) deficiency in invasive carcinomas. Semin. Cancer Biol. 1993;4:231–239
  87. Takeichi M. Cadherin cell adhesion receptors as a morphogenetic regulator. Science. 1991;251:1451–1455
  88. Takeichi M. Cadherins in cancer: implications for invasion and metastasis. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 1993;5:806–811
  89. Jiang WG. E-cadherin and its associated protein catenins, cancer invasion and metastasis. Br. J. Surg. 1996;83(4):437–446
  90. Schipper JH, Unger A, Jahnke K. E-cadherin as a functional marker of the differentiation and invasiveness of squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck. Clin. Otolaryngol. 1994;19:381–384
  91. Schipper JH, Frixen UH, Behrens J, Unger A, Jahnke K, Birchmeier W. E-cadherin expression in squamous cell carcinomas of head and neck: inverse correlation with tumor dedifferentiation and lymph node metastasis. Cancer Res. 1991;51:6328–6337
  92. Bowie GL, Caslin AW, Roland NJ, Field JK, Jones AS, Kinsella AR. Expression of the cell–cell adhesion molecule E-cadherin in squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck. Clin. Otolaryngol. 1993;18:196–201
  93. Mattijssen V, Peters HM, Schalkwijk L, Manni JJ, van't Hof-Grootenboer B, de Mulder PH, et al.  E-cadherin expression in head and neck squamous-cell carcinoma is associated with clinical outcome. Int. J. Cancer. 1993;55:580–585
  94. Andrews NA, Jones AS, Helliwell TR, Kinsella AR. Expression of the E-cadherin–catenin adhesion complex in primary squamous cell carcinomas of the head and neck and their nodal metastases. Br. J. Cancer. 1997;75(10):1474–1480
  95. Litvinov SV, Velders MP, Bakker HAM, Fleuren GJ, Warnaar SO. Ep-CAM: a human epithelial antigen is a homophilic cell–cell adhesion molecule. J. Cell Biol. 1994;125:437–446
  96. Litvinov SV, Bakker HAM, Gourevitch MM, Velders MP, Warnaar SO. Evidence for a role of the epithelial glycoprotein 40 (Ep-CAM) in epithelial cell–cell adhesion. Cell Adhes. Commun. 1994;2:1–11
  97. Litvinov SV, Balzar M, Winter MJ, Bakker HAM, Briaire-de Bruijn IH, Prins F, et al.  Epithelial cell adhesion molecule (Ep-CAM) modulates cell–cell interactions mediated by classic cadherins. J. Cell Biol. 1997;139(5):1337–1348
  98. Basak S, Speicher D, Eck S, Wunner W, Maul G, Simmons MS, et al.  Colorectal carcinoma invasion inhibition by CO17-1A/GA733 antigen and its murine homologue. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 1998;90:691–697
  99. Kanke M, Fujii M, Kameyama K, Kanzaki J, Tokumaru Y, Imanishi Y, et al.  Role of CD44 variant exon 6 in invasion of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma. Arch. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. 2000;126(10):1217–1223
  100. Spafford MF, Koeppe J, Pan Z, Archer PG, Meyers AD, Franklin WA. Correlation of tumor markers p53, bcl-2, CD34, CD44H, CD44v6, and Ki-67 with survival and metastasis in laryngeal squamous cell carcinoma. Arch. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. 1996;122(6):627–632
  101. Masuda M, Kuratomi Y, Shiratsuchi H, Nakashima T, Naonobu K, Komiyama S. Decreased CD44H expression in early-stage tongue carcinoma associates with late nodal metastases following interstitial brachytherapy. Head Neck. 2000;22(7):662–665
  102. Rodrigo JP, Dominguez F, Alvarez C, Gonzalez MV, Herrero A, Suarez C. Clinicopathologic significance of expression of CD44s and CD44v6 isoforms in squamous cell carcinoma of the supraglottic larynx. Am. J. Clin. Pathol. 2002;118(1):67–72
  103. Kurahara S, Shinohara M, Ikebe T, Nakamura S, Hiraki A, Sasaki M, et al.  Immunohistochemical study of sialyl Le(a) and sialyl Le(x) antigen in oral squamous cell carcinoma: the association of sialyl Le(a) expression with the metastatic potential. Head Neck. 1999;21(4):330–337
  104. Farmer RW, Richtsmeier WJ, Scher RL. Identification of sialyl Lewis-x in squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck. Head Neck. 1998;20(8):726–731
  105. Anttonen A, Kajanti M, Heikkila P, Jalkanen M, Joensuu H. Syndecan-1 expression has prognostic significance in head and neck carcinoma. Br. J. Cancer. 1999;79(3–4):558–564
  106. Pulkkinen JO, Penttinen M, Jalkanen M, Klemi P, Grenman R. Syndecan-1: a new prognostic marker in laryngeal cancer. Acta Otolaryngol. 1997;117(2):312–315
  107. Hirota J, Yoneda K, Osaki T. Basement membrane type IV collagen in oral squamous cell carcinoma. Head Neck. 1990;12:400–405
  108. Kumagai S, Kojima S, Imai K, Nakagawa K, Yamamoto E, Kawahara E, et al.  Immunohistologic distribution of basement membrane in oral squamous cell carcinoma. Head Neck. 1994;16:51–57
  109. Carter RL, Burman JF, Barr L, Gusterson BA. Immunohistochemical localization of basement membrane type IV collagen in invasive and metastatic squamous carcinomas of the head and neck. J. Pathol. 1985;147:159–164
  110. Curran S, Murray GI. Matrix metalloproteinases in tumour invasion and metastasis. J. Pathol. 1999;189:300–308
  111. Krahara S, Shinohara M, Ikebe T, Nakamura S, Beppu M, Hiraki A, et al.  Expression of MMps, MT-MMP, and TIMPs in squamous cell carcinoma of the oral cavity: correlations with tumor invasion and metastasis. Head Neck. 1999;21:627–638
  112. Kurahara S, Shinohara M, Ikebe T, Nakamura S, Beppu M, Hiraki A, et al.  Expression of MMPs, MT-MMP, and TIMPs in squamous cell carcinoma of the oral cavity: correlations with tumor invasion and metastasis. Head Neck––J. Sci. Special. Head Neck. 1999;21(7):627–638
  113. Petruzzelli GJ, Snyderman CH, Johnson JT. In vitro urokinase type plasminogen activator levels and total plasminogen activator activity in squamous cell carcinomas of the head and neck. Arch. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. 1994;120:989–992
  114. Yoshino H, Endo Y, Watanabe Y, Sasaki T. Significance of plasminogen activator inhibitor 2 as a prognostic marker in primary lung cancer: association of decreased plasminogen activator inhibitor 2 with lymph node metastasis. Br. J. Cancer. 1998;78(6):833–839
  115. Nozaki S, Endo Y, Kawashiri S, Nakagawa K, Yamamoto E, Yonemura Y, et al.  Immunohistochemical localization of a urokinase-type plasminogen activator system in squamous cell carcinoma of the oral cavity: association with mode of invasion and lymph node metastasis. Oral Oncol. 1998;34(1):58–62
  116. Gasparini G, Weidner N, Maluta S, Pozza F, Boracchi P, Mezzetti M, et al.  Intratumoral microvessel density and p53 protein: correlation with metastasis in head-and-neck squamous-cell carcinoma. Int. J. Cancer. 1993;55:739–744
  117. Klijanienko J, el-Naggar AK, de Braud F, Rodriguez-Peralto JL, Rodriguez R, Itzhaki M, et al.  Tumor vascularization, mitotic index, histopathologic grade, and DNA ploidy in the assessment of 114 head and neck squamous cell carcinomas. Cancer. 1995;75(7):1649–1656
  118. Shpitzer T, Chaimoff M, Gal R, Stern Y, Feinmesser R, Segal K. Tumor angiogenesis as a prognostic factor in early oral tongue cancer. Arch. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. 1996;122(8):865–868
  119. Rofstad EK. Microenvironment-induced cancer metastasis. Int. J. Radiat. Biol. 2000;76(5):589–605
  120. Dachs GU, Tozer GM. Hypoxia modulated gene expression: angiogenesis, metastasis and therapeutic exploitation. Cancer. 2000;36(13 Spec No):1649–1660
  121. Steeg PS, Cohn KH, Leone A. Tumor metastasis and nm23: current concepts. Cancer Cells. 1991;3:257–262
  122. Otsuki K, Alcalde RE, Matsumura T, Kimura N. Immunohistochemical analysis of nucleoside diphosphate kinases in oral squamous cell carcinomas. Oncology. 1997;54(1):63–68
  123. Scholnick SB, Sun PC, Shaw ME, Haughey BH, el-Mofty SK. Frequent loss of heterozygosity for Rb, TP53, and chromosome arm 3p, but not NME1 in squamous cell carcinomas of the supraglottic larynx. Cancer. 1994;73:2472–2480
  124. Irjala H, Alanen K, Grenman R, Heikkila P, Joensuu H, Jalkanen S. Mannose receptor (MR) and common lymphatic endothelial and vascular endothelial receptor (CLEVER)-1 direct the binding of cancer cells to the lymph vessel endothelium. Cancer Res. 2003;63(15):4671–4676
  125. el-Naggar AK, Dinh M, Tucker S, Luna MA, Goepfert H, Hsu P, et al.  Genotypic analysis of primary head and neck squamous carcinoma by combined fluorescence in situ hybridization and DNA flow cytometry. Am. J. Clin. Pathol. 1996;105(1):102–108
  126. Welkoborsky H-J, Mann WJ, Gluckman JL, Freije JE. Comparison of quantative DNA measurements and cytomorphology in squamous cell carcinomas of the upper aerodigesive tract with and without lymph node metastases. Ann. Otol. Rhinol. Laryngol. 1993;102:52–57
  127. Sarker SK, Ghufoor K, Patel KS, Tolley NS, Coleman DV. Nuclear DNA content using computerized image cytometry of squamous cell carcinomas of the head and neck. J. Laryngol. Otol. 1997;111(1):43–47
  128. Ensley JF, Maciorowski Z, Hassan M, Pietraszkiewicz H, Heilbrun L, Kish JA, et al.  Cellular DNA content parameters in untreated and recurrent squamous cell cancers of the head and neck. Cytometry. 1989;10(3):334–338
  129. Tytor M, Olofsson J. Prognostic factors in oral cavity carcinomas. Acta Otolaryngol. Suppl. (Stockh). 1992;492:75–78
  130. Balsara BR, Borges AM, Pradhan SA, Rajpal RM, Bhisey AN. Flow cytometric DNA analysis of squamous cell carcinoma of the oral cavity: correlation with clinical and histopathologigcal features. Eur. J. Cancer B Oral Oncol. 1994;30B:98–101
  131. Hemmer J, Thein T, Van Heerden WF. The value of DNA flow cytometry in predicting the development of lymph node metastasis and survival in patients with locally recurrent oral squamous cell carcinoma. Cancer. 1997;79(12):2309–2313
  132. King WWK, Lam PK, Li AKC. DNA ploidy as a predictor of cervical metastasis in advanced squamous carcinoma of the tongue. Acta Otolaryngol. (Stockh). 1995;115:455–458
  133. Saito T, Sato J, Satoh A, Notani K, Fukuda H, Mizuno S, et al.  Flow cytometric analysis of nuclear DNA content in tongue squamous cell carcinoma: relation to cervical lymph node metastasis. Int. J. Oral Maxillofac Surg. 1994;23:28–31
  134. Wolf GT, Fisher SG, Truelson JM, Beals TF. DNA content and regional metastases in patients with advanced laryngeal squamous carcinoma. Laryngoscope. 1994;104:479–483
  135. Frierson HF, Cooper PH. Prognostic factors in squamous cell carcinoma of the lower lip. Hum. Pathol. 1986;17:346–354
  136. Rasgon BM, Cruz RM, Hilsinger RL, Sawicki JE. Relation of lymph-node metastasis to histopathologic appearance in oral cavity and oropharyngeal carcinoma: a case series and literature review. Laryngoscope. 1989;99:1103–1110
  137. Iwasaki K, Motomichi T, Fujimara T. Malignant tumor and eosinophils. I Prognostic significance in gastric cancer. Cancer. 1986;58:1321–1327
  138. Lowe D, Fletcher CDM. Eosinophilia in squamous cell carcinoma of the oral cavity, external genitalia and anus-clinical correlations. Histopathology. 1984;8:627–632
  139. Goldsmith MM, Belchis DA, Cresson DH, Merritt WD, Askin FB. The importance of the eosinophil in head and neck cancer. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. 1992;106:27–33
  140. Thompson AC, Bradley PJ, Griffin NR. Tumor-associated tissue eosinophilia and long term prognosis for carcinoma of the larynx. Am. J. Surg. 1994;168:469–471
  141. Shear M, Hawkins DM, Farr HW. The prediction of lymph node metastases from oral squamous carcinoma. Cancer. 1976;37:1901–1907
  142. Jones AS. Prognosis in mouth cancer: tumour factors. Eur. J. Cancer B Oral Oncol. 1994;30B:8–15
  143. Yamamoto E, Miyakawa A, Kohama G. Mode of invasion and lymph node metastasis in squamous cell carcinoma of the oral cavity. Head Neck Surg. 1984;6:938–947
  144. Shingaki S, Suzuki I, Nakajima T, Kawasaki T. Evaluation of histopathologic parameters in predicting cervical lymph node metastasis of oral and oropharyngeal carcinomas. Oral Surg. Oral Med. Oral Pathol. 1988;66:683–688
  145. Fagan JJ, Collins B, Barnes L, D'Amico F, Myers EN, Johnson JT. Perineural invasion in squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck. Arch. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. 1998;124:637–640
  146. Woolgar JA, Scott J. Prediction of cervical lymph node metastasis in squamous cell carcinoma of the tongue/floor of mouth. Head Neck. 1995;17:463–472
  147. Resnick JM, Uhlman D, Niehans GA, Gapany M, Adams G, Knapp D, et al.  Cervical lymph node status and survival in laryngeal carcinoma: prognostic factors. Ann. Otol. Rhinol. Laryngol. 1995;104(9 Pt 1):685–694
  148. Fidler IJ, Hart IR. Biological diversity in metastatic neoplasms: origins and implications. Science. 1982;217:998–1003
  149. Lengauer C, Kinzler KW, Vogelstein B. Genetic instabilities in human cancers. Nature. 1998;396:643–649
  150. Takes RP, Baatenburg de Jong RJ, Keuning J, Hermans J, Schuuring E, van Krieken JHJM. Protein expression of cancer associated genes: biopsy material compared to resection material. Anticancer Res. 1998;18:4787–4792
  151. Takes RP, Baatenburg de Jong RJ, Schuuring E, Litvinov SV, Hermans J, van Krieken JHJM. Differences in expression of oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes in different sites of head and neck squamous cell cancer. Anticancer Res. 1998;18:4793–4800
  152. Rodrigo JP, Suarez C, Gonzalez MV, Lazo PS, Ramos S, Coto E, et al.  Variability of genetic alterations in different sites of head and neck cancer. Laryngoscope. 2001;111(7):1297–1301
  153. Freier K, Joos S, Flechtenmacher C, Devens F, Benner A, Bosch FX, et al.  Tissue microarray analysis reveals site-specific prevalence of oncogene amplifications in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma. Cancer Res. 2003;63(6):1179–1182
  154. Ambrosch P, Kron M, Fischer G, Brinck U. Micrometastases in carcinoma of the upper aerodigestive tract: detection, risk of metastasizing, and prognostic value of depth of invasion. Head Neck. 1995;17(6):473–479
  155. van den Brekel MW, van der Waal I, Meijer CJ, Freeman JL, Castelijns JA, Snow GB. The incidence of micrometastases in neck dissection specimens obtained from elective neck dissections. Laryngoscope. 1996;106(8):987–991
  156. Barrera JE, Miller ME, Said S, Jafek BW, Campana JP, Shroyer KR. Detection of occult cervical micrometastases in patients with head and neck squamous cell cancer. Laryngoscope. 2003;113(5):892–896
  157. Ferlito A, Shaha AR, Rinaldo A. The incidence of lymph node micrometastases in patients pathologically staged N0 in cancer of oral cavity and oropharynx. Oral Oncol. 2002;38(1):3–5
  158. Hamakawa H, Fukizumi M, Bao Y, Sumida T, Onishi A, Tanioka H, et al.  Genetic diagnosis of micrometastasis based on SCC antigen mRNA in cervical lymph nodes of head and neck cancer. Clin. Exp. Metastasis. 1999;17(7):593–599
  159. Nieuwenhuis EJ, Leemans CR, Kummer A, Denkers F, Snow GB, Brakenhoff RH. Assessment and clinical significance of micrometastases in lymph nodes of head and neck cancer patients detected by E48 (Ly-6D) quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. Lab. Invest. 2003;83(8):1233–1240
  160. Rodrigo JP, Dominguez F, Alvarez C, Marinque C, Herrero A, Suarez C. Expression of E-cadherin in squamous cell carcinomas of the supraglottic larynx with correlations to clinicopathological features. Eur. J. Cancer. 2002;38(8):1059–1064
  161. Belbin TJ, Singh B, Barber I, Socci N, Wenig B, Smith R, et al.  Molecular classification of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma using cDNA microarrays. Cancer Res. 2002;62(4):1184–1190
  162. Leethanakul C, Knezevic V, Patel V, Amornphimoltham P, Gillespie J, et al.  Gene discovery in oral squamous cell carcinoma through the Head and Neck Cancer Genome Anatomy Project: confirmation by microarray analysis. Oral Oncol. 2003;39(3):248–258
  163. Alevizos I, Mahadevappa M, Zhang X, Ohyama H, Kohno Y, Posner M, et al.  Oral cancer in vivo gene expression profiling assisted by laser capture microdissection and microarray analysis. Oncogene. 2001;20(43):6196–6204
  164. van de Vijver MJ, He YD, van't Veer LJ, Dai H, Hart AA, Voskuil DW, et al.  A gene-expression signature as a predictor of survival in breast cancer. N. Engl. J. Med. 2002;347(25):1999–2009
  165. Ramaswamy S, Ross KN, Lander ES, Golub TR. A molecular signature of metastasis in primary solid tumors. Nat. Genet. 2003;33(1):49–54
  166. Al Moustafa AE, Alaoui-Jamali MA, Batist G, Hernandez-Perez M, Serruya C, Alpert L, et al.  Identification of genes associated with head and neck carcinogenesis by cDNA microarray comparison between matched primary normal epithelial and squamous carcinoma cells. Oncogene. 2002;21(17):2634–2640
  167. Hwang D, Alevizos I, Schmitt WA, Misra J, Ohyama H, Todd R, et al.  Genomic dissection for characterization of cancerous oral epithelium tissues using transcription profiling. Oral Oncol. 2003;39(3):259–268

PII: S1368-8375(03)00236-7

doi: 10.1016/j.oraloncology.2003.11.001

Oral Oncology
Volume 40, Issue 7 , Pages 656-667 , August 2004